~ History of India ~

[MysteRy]

Ancient India

The ancient history of India is very vast and significant. It laid the foundation of a civilization that is flourishing till today. The history of ancient India dates back to the time when humans set foot in the sub-continent. The rich culture of India is a result of the dynamic historical background. Civilization and beginning of settlements were not limited to just some parts but the whole of India. Early Indian history also has influences from the cultures that surround the country. The settlements in surrounding countries like China, Europe, Central Asia, etc. also influenced the culture in India. The effects are visible even today. In our related sections, you shall find information about the very early instances of human race in the Indian sub continent that gradually developed into a civilization of sorts.

Maurya Empire
One of the greatest empires in the history of India was the Maurya Empire. It approximately lasted from 322 - 185 B.C. Most of India was united as a single entity by the great emperor Chandragupta Maurya. His son Bindusara extended the kingdom of Mauryas over almost the entire sub-continent. The Mauryan Empire had the most powerful military force in ancient India. The greatest emperor of the Maurya dynasty was Ashoka.

Vedic Period
The Vedic Period is one of major milestones in the history of India. It is estimated that the Vedic Period in India lasted from 1500 - 600 B.C. This period brought about a multitude of changes in the lifestyle of people. The Vedic age is broadly classified into two categories: Early Vedic Age and Later Vedic age. There was development in agricultural practices, worshipping patterns, philosophical outlooks, etc.

16 Mahajanapadas

Alexander's Invasion

Gautama Buddha

Buddhism

Chalukya Dynasty

Chola Dynasty

Epic Age in India

Gupta Empire

Harshavardhan

Indus Valley Civilization

Magadha Empire

Lord Mahavira

Pallava Dynasty

Prehistoric India

Tripartite Struggle

Ancient India Art

Ancient India Culture

Ancient India Facts

Ancient Indian Food

Ancient India Geography

Ancient India Gods

Ancient India Government

Ancient India Religion

Ancient India Timeline

Women in Ancient India

Sangam Age

Jainism

[MysteRy]

Cultural History of India

India has a rich cultural history and continues to preserve it beautifully. India has accepted gracefully the good qualities of different religions which led to the rise of many different cultures in this mystical sub-continent. Different rulers and empires came here and ruled and left behind a rich legacy of their cultural heritage. The Indian cultural history is very rich and has carved a niche of its own. It continues to inspire other cultures of the world. Every state in India has a culture of its own and even then they all stand unified and form one single culture of India. Read about the cultural history of India.

Many religions took birth India like Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, etc. These religions influenced not just our country but nations all over the world. With Islamic rule in India, Islam became one of the religions in India. Ancient architectural specimens and monuments of India stand testimony to the confluence of different religions in India. The Hindus and Muslims took inspiration from each other and formed new architectural styles like rounded domes and construction of pillars.

Art developed right from the Stone Age when early man used to draw animal figures and paint them in caves. This developed to a much more refined formed of painting as time went by like decorating the front porch of the house. This custom is still followed in modern India in many homes in the southern regions. Music and dance developed from a crude form to a beautiful refined form and took the form of present classical music and dance forms like Carnatic, Hindustani, Kathak, Bharatanatyam, etc. With the development of regions and states, they developed their own folk dances that were exclusive to one particular region.

There was great advancement in literature since ancient times. India has been the birth land of great thinkers, philosophers and scholars. This is evident in great literary works like Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, etc. which are considered no less than holy epics. With time, languages developed and many great literary masterpieces and plays were written like Shakuntalam, Shilpadhikaram, etc. With the culmination of different religions, different cuisines came into the limelight that are now considered to be the traditional food of India. The culture of India is truly the blend of some of the best cultures of this world and is one of those very few cultures that are surviving since ancient times.

[MysteRy]

Economic History of India

Indian economic history is all about the development of the economy from ancient times to the present. The economic history of India can be traced back to the time of ancient Indus Valley civilization. Humans learned how to settle at one place instead of being nomads. Due to the fertile lands, they learnt how to cultivate and do farming. Slowly they made farming tools, domesticated animals, invented the plough, etc. With the discovery of metals, tools were made out of metals like copper, bronze, tin, etc. Read here about the economic history of India in brief.

The Indus Valley Civilization had a flourishing economy with the introduction of agriculture. Very soon, they found out trade routes and developed trade links with Middle East countries. The main economic activity of people during the Vedic Age was agriculture. With time, they started to go towards urbanization and many urban centers started to develop in the north of India. This boosted economic growth and India started to have trade relations with the Roman Empire and South East Asia.

With further developments in agriculture, small industries like textile, crafts and food processing started to develop. Many other small employees and workers came into light like barbers, carpenters, doctors , goldsmiths, weavers, etc. By this time, coins came into use and were used for purchasing materials. In the villages, barter system was widely prevalent. As time went by,caste system came into existence and the profession of a person was decided by the caste in which he was born. This was much prevalent during the rule of Indian kings and princes. This formed a hierarchy in the society which became stronger by the day.

With foreign invasions like that of Turks and Mughals in India, the wealth of India was plundered time and again. Yet, India never ran out of royal riches and was known as the Golden Bird. This is what attracted foreign rulers to come and establish their kingdoms in India. The wealth was accumulated by exporting exotic items like spices, Kashmiri shawls, textile and handicrafts, muslin, etc. in exchange for gold and silver. During the medieval age, the Mughals and other emperors encouraged the growth of small scale industries like pottery and handicrafts.

The Europeans came to India in the 16th century to develop their trade prospects with India. They completely changed the face of trade and commerce in India. The Europeans were interested basically in spices, ethnic handicrafts, cotton etc. Among the various European nations, the British proved themselves to be the strongest and broke the Dutch monopoly of trade in India. The British got political control and began to exploit Indian resources and India was drained of its wealth badly. The industrial infrastructure was in a pathetic state after 200 years of British rule in India. Small scale industries suffered badly and were facing near extinction.

Independence was gained after much efforts and sacrifices by great people. After independence India began to plan carefully its needs and resources. Planned economic development was the call of the hour. The focus was on developing large scale and heavy industries. The state controlled the economic policies of development. A blend of liberalization, privatization and globalization was pursued to achieve desired results. The economy was essentially mixed in nature with a blend of capitalism and socialism that has led India to the present state.

[MysteRy]

India Timeline

India has a rich historical legacy. This mystical country has seen the earliest civilizations and has preserved evidence of the same till today. Many cultures came and left behind their impact on Indian history. India was invaded many times by foreign rulers and has preserved their cultural heritage too. One finds a cultural and historical mish mash of various ethnicities and religions in India co-existing very harmoniously and beautifully. This timeline of Indian history tries to capture the vast history of India in a few pages. So check out the ancient India time line.

Ancient India Timeline

3000 BC: Beginning of the Indus Valley Civilization
2500 BC: Establishment of the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro in the Indus Valley
2000 BC: Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization
1600 BC: India is invaded by the Aryans from the west who drive away the Dravidians
1100 BC: With the discovery of iron, Indo-Aryans start using iron tools
1000 BC: One of the earliest Holy Scripture, Rig-Veda is composed
750 BC: Indo-Aryans rule over 16 Mahajanapadas (16 Great States) in northern India, from the Indus to the Ganges
700 BC: Beginning of the caste system, with the Brahmans taking the highest class
600 BC: The Upanishads are composed in Sanskrit
543 BC: Bimbisara of Bihar conquers the Magadha region in the northeast
527 BC: Prince Siddhartha Gautama attains enlightenment and becomes the Buddha
500 BC: The ascetic prince Mahavira establishes Jainism in northern India
493 BC: Bimbisara dies and is succeeded by Ajatashatru
461 BC: Ajatashatru expands the Magadha territory and dies shortly afterwards
327 BC: Alexander the Great of Macedonia invades the Indus valley, fights the famous battle with Porus
304 BC: Magadha king Chandragupta Maurya buys the Indus valley and establishes the Maurya dynasty with Pataliputra as the capital
300 BC: Ramayana, a famous epic is composed
300 BC: Chola dynasty establishes his kingdom over southern India with capital in Thanjavur
290 BC: Chandragupta's son Bindusara, extends the empire to the Deccan region
259 BC: Mauryan emperor Ashoka converts to Buddhism and sends out Buddhist missionaries to nearby regions
220 BC: Maurya dynasty expands to almost all of India
200 BC: Mahabharata, another famous epic is composed
200 BC: Andhras occupy the east coast of India
184 BC: Maurya dynasty ends and marks the beginning of Sunga dynasty
150 BC: Patanjali writes the "Yoga Sutras"
100 BC: Bhagavata Gita is composed
78 BC: End of Sunga dynasty
50 AD: Thomas, an apostle of Jesus, visits India
50 AD: The first Buddhist stupa is constructed at Sanchi
200 AD: The Manu code puts down the rules of everyday life and divides Hindus into four major castes (Brahmins, warriors, farmers/traders, non-Aryans)
300 AD: The Pallava dynasty is established in Kanchi
350 AD: The Sangam is compiled in the Tamil language in the kingdom of Madurai and the Puranas are composed
380 AD: Two giant Buddha statues are carved Buddhist monks in the rock at Afghanistan
390 AD: Chandra Gupta II extends the Gupta kingdom to Gujarat
450 AD: Kumaragupta builds the monastic university of Nalanda
499 AD: Hindu mathematician Aryabhatta writes the "Aryabhattiyam", the first book on Algebra
500 AD: Beginning of Bhakti cult in Tamil Nadu
528 AD: Gupta Empire sees a downfall due to continuous barbaric invasions
550 AD: Chalukyan kingdom is established in central India with capital in Badami
600 AD: Pallava dynasty governs southern India from Kanchi
606 AD: Harsha Vardhana, a Buddhist king builds the kingdom of Thanesar in north India and Nepal with capital at Kannauj in the Punjab
625 AD: Pulikesin extends the Chalukyan Empire in central India
647 AD: King Harsha Vardhana is defeated by the Chalukyas at Malwa
650 AD: Pallavas of Kanchipuram are defeated by the Chalukyas
670 AD: Pallavas establish themselves at a new city at Mamallapuram
750 AD: Gurjara - Pratiharas rule the north of India and the Palas establish themselves in eastern India
753 AD: Rashtrakutas, a Chalukya dynasty, expands from the Deccan into south and central India
775 AD: Chalukyas defeat the Rashtrakutas and move the capital at Kalyani
800 AD: Many kingdoms are created in central India and in Rajastan by Rajputs
846 AD: Cholas get back their independence from the Pallavas
885 AD: Pratihara Empire reaches its peak and extends its empire from Punjab to Gujarat to Central India
888 AD: End of the Pallava dynasty
985 AD: Rajaraja Chola extends the Chola Empire to all of south India and constructs the temple of Thanjavur
997 AD: Mahmud of Ghazni raids northern India
998 AD: Mahmud of Ghazni conquers the area of Punjab
1000 AD: Chola king Rajaraja builds the Brihadeshvara Temple in Thanjavur
1019 AD: Mahmud Ghazni attacks north India and destroys Kannauj, which is the capital of the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
1050 AD: Chola Empire conquers Srivijaya, Malaya and the Maldives
1084 AD: Mahipala raises the Palas to the peak of their power
1190 AD: Chalukya Empire is split among Hoysalas, Yadavas and Kakatiyas

Medieval India Timeline

1192 AD: Mohammad of Ghori defeats Prithvi Raj, captures Delhi and establishes a Muslim sultanate at Delhi
1206 AD: The Ghurid prince Qutub-ud-din Aibak becomes the first sultan of Delhi
1250 AD: Chola dynasty comes to an end
1290 AD: Jalal ud-Din Firuz establishes the Khilji sultanate at Delhi
1325 AD: The Turks invade and Muhammad bin Tughlaq becomes sultan of Delhi
1343 AD: The southern kingdom builds its capital at Vijayanagar (Hampi)
1345 AD: Muslim nobles revolt against Muhammad bin Tughlaq and declare their independence from the Delhi sultanate. The Bahmani kingdom is established in the Deccan.
1370 AD: Vijayanagar kingdom takes over the Muslim sultanate of Madura in Tamil Nadu
1490 AD: Guru Nanak Dev Ji establishes Sikhism and the city of Amritsar
1497 AD: Babur, a ruler of Afghan, becomes the ruler of Ferghana and establishes the Mughal dynasty in India
1530 AD: Babur dies and his son Humayun succeeds as the next Mughal emperor
1540 AD: Babur's son Humayun loses the empire to Afghan Leader Sher Shah and goes into exile in Persia
1555 AD: Mughal king Humayun comes to fight Sher Shah and regains India
1556 AD: Humayun dies and his son Akbar becomes one of the greatest rulers of India
1605 AD: Akbar dies and is succeeded by his son Jahangir
1611 AD: East India Company is established in India by the British
1617 AD: Jahangir's son, Prince Khurram receives the title of Shah Jahan
1627 AD: Shivaji establishes the Maratha kingdom
1631 AD: Shah Jahan succeeds Jahangir and builds the world famous Taj Mahal
1658 AD: Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb seizes power
1707 AD: Aurangzeb dies, destabilizing the Mughal Empire

Modern India Timeline

1751 AD: Britain becomes the leading colonial power in India
1757 AD: British defeat Siraj-ud-daulah at the Battle of Plassey
1761 AD: Marathas rule over most of northern India
1764 AD: Britain expands to Bengal and Bihar
1769 AD: A famine kills ten million people in Bengal and the East India Company does nothing to help them
1773 AD: Warren Hastings, governor of Bengal establishes a monopoly on the sale of opium. Regulating Act passed by the British.
1793 AD: Permanent Settlement of Bengal
1799 AD: British defeat Tipu Sultan
1829 AD: Prohibition of Sati by law
1831 AD: Administration of Mysore is taken over by East India Company
1848 AD: Lord Dalhousie becomes the Governor-General of India
1853 AD: Railway, postal services & telegraph line introduced in India
1857 AD: First War of Indian Independence also known as Revolt of 1857 or Sepoy Mutiny
1858 AD: British Crown officially takes over the Indian Government
1877 AD: Queen of England is proclaimed as the Empress of India
1885 AD: First meeting of the Indian National Congress
1899 AD: Lord Curzon becomes Governor-General and Viceroy of India
1905 AD: The First Partition of Bengal takes place
1906 AD: Muslim League is formed
1912 AD: The Imperial capital shifted to Delhi from Calcutta
1919 AD: The cruel Jallianwalla Bagh massacre takes place due to protests against the Rowlatt Act
1920 AD: Non-cooperation Movement launched
1922 AD: Chauri-Chaura violence takes place due to Civil Disobedience Movement
1928 AD: Simon Commission comes to India and is boycotted by all parties
1930 AD: Salt Satyagraha is launched as an agitation against salt tax. First Round Table Conference takes place
1931 AD: Second Round Table Conference takes place and Irwin-Gandhi Pact is signed
1934 AD: Civil Disobedience Movement is called off
1942 AD: Cripps Mission is formed; Quit India Movement is launched; Indian National Army is formed.
3rd June 1947 AD: Lord Mountbatten's plan for partition of India comes into light
15th August 1947 AD: Partition of India and Independence from the British rule

[MysteRy]

16 Mahajanapadas

In ancient India, a number of kingdoms emerged during the Vedic Age that were spread across the Indo-Gangetic plain. These kingdoms were also called as republics and 16 of them were regarded the greatest of all. These 16 kingdoms were known as the 16 Mahajanapadas. These 16 Maha Janapadas are mentioned in the ancient literature and scriptures. The term Maha Janapada actually means "great country" and is derived from Sanskrit. The sixteen mahajanapadas rose before the start of Buddhism in India. Though these places were tribal settlements initially, roughly by 600 B.C they grew into bigger political entities by grabbing land. The sixteen mahajanapadas are given here in detail.

Anga
The kingdom of Anga is mentioned in the Atharva Veda and was located roughly at the site of the present day Bihar and some parts of West Bengal. On the north was River Ganga and it was separated from the Magadha by River Champa. Anga was one of the most flourishing cities and was an important center of trade and commerce. It was regarded as one of the six principal cities of early India.

Assaka / Ashmaka
Assaka, also known as Ashmaka was a kingdom that was located in the south of India. During the time of Buddha, this tribe was located on the banks of river Godavari. The capital city of Assaka was known as Potana. It was situated in central India and extended till southern India. It is estimated that Assaka was situated roughly at the place where modern day Maharashtra is located.

Avanti
Avanti was a very important kingdom located in Western India and was considered to be one of the four important monarchies during the time Buddhism began in India. River Vetravati used to flow right through Avanti thus dividing it into north and south provinces. Avanti was located roughly at the place where the state of Madhya Pradesh is located now. Avanti was an important center of Buddhism and later became a part of Magadhan Empire.

Chedi / Cheti
There were two different settlements of the Chedis, also known as Cheti. One was in the mountainous regions of Nepal while the other was located near River Yamuna. The southern boundaries of Chedi went till the banks of River Narmada. The Chedis are mentioned in Rig Veda, which is regarded as the oldest scripture. This means that Chedis were prevalent here since a long time.

Gandhara
The Gandharas established themselves since the Vedic Age on the banks of River Kubha till the River Indus. With time, they crossed Indus and expanded their territory into Punjab. The Gandharas were very aggressive in nature and were masters of the art of warfare. It is said that this kingdom was founded by the son of Aruddha known as Gandhara.

Kamboja
Kamboja was said to have been located on either sides of the Hindukush. In early scriptures and literature, Kamboja is mentioned along with Gandhara, Darada and the Bahlika quite a number of times. The Kambojas were supposed to have both Indian and Iranian similarities.

Kasi
The Aryans who had settled around Varanasi were known as Kasis. The city was flanked by the rivers Varuna and Asi from which the place derives its name. Kasi was the most powerful kingdom of the sixteen Janapadas before the rise of Buddhism. During the rise of Buddha, it was converted into Kosala. This place is mentioned as Kausika / Kausaka in the Matsya Purana.

Kosala
Kosala was located around 70 miles to the north west of present day Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh. It was flanked in the south by River Ganga, in the north by the Himalayas and in the east by the River Gandak. The ruler was called king Prasenjit who was succeeded by his son Vidudabha. During his son's reign, Kosala was combined with Magadha. The three chief cities of Kosala were Ayodhya, Saketa and Sravasti.

Kuru
The origin of the Kuru clan can be traced to the Puru - Bharata family. Some of them were settled in central India and some were living beyond the Himalayan ranges. It is said that the founder of Kururashtra in Kurukshetra was the son of Samvarsana called Kuru. The Kurus were known for their profound wisdom and sound health. The Kurus switched to republic form of government from monarchy during 5th Century B.C.

Machcha / Matsya
The kingdom of Matsya or Machcha is said to have comprised the region of the present day Jaipur in Rajasthan along with Alwar and Bharatpur. The founder of this kingdom was king Virata and the capital of this kingdom was named Viratanagara after him. The Matsya once formed a part of the Chedi kingdom as there are evidences that show that this place was ruled by the king of Chedi.

Magadha
The Magadhas are referred to in the Atharva Veda. According to the early scriptures, the Magadhas were not fully Brahmins. Thus, they were loathed at and were spoken of in contempt. Except for King Pramaganda, no other ruler is mentioned in the Vedas. It is stated in the Mahabharata that Magadha came into the limelight under the king Bimbisara and later under his son Ajatasatru. It was one of the chief empires of India during those times. The kingdom of Magadha was situated roughly where the present day Bihar is located.

Malla
Most of the scriptures of the Jains and Buddhists mention the Mallas. Their tribe was supposed to be quite powerful and they lived somewhere towards the Eastern India. The Mallas had a republic form of society and their dominant territory comprised of nine provinces. Two of these nine provinces (Pava and Kusinara) gained much importance in due course of time when Buddha came over here and took his last meal before breathing his last at Kusinara.

Panchala
The Panchalas were located in the north of India and had their province to the east of the Kurus. They were located between the Himalayan ranges and river Ganga. One can say that it was located roughly at the place where the modern day Uttar Pradesh is located. The Panchalas were originally monarchial in nature and later transformed to the republican form of government during the 5th Century B.C. They are mentioned in Kautilya's Arthashastra as following the constitution of the king.

Surasena
The location of the Surasena was around the west side of river Yamuna and had its capital city at Mathura. The king of Surasena, Avantiputra played a vital role in promoting Buddhism in his kingdom. He was one of the chief disciples of Buddha and aimed at spreading his knowledge and wisdom all through his kingdom. The capital city of Mathura was an important center for the worship of Lord Krishna. With time, the kingdom of Surasena was annexed by Magadha Empire.

Vajji / Vriji
The Vajji or Vriji comprised of eight to nine allied races and this kingdom became an important center of cultural and political activities. It was essentially located in northern India. Out of the nine races, the Licchhavis, the Vedehans, the Jnatrikas and the Vajjis were the most important. The Licchhavis were an independent clan and their capital was called Vaishali. It was an important center of Buddhism and the headquarters of the powerful republic of Vajjis. Buddha is supposed to have visited Licchhavis on many occasions. As time passed, the kingdom of Licchhavis was conquered by the king of Magadha, Ajatasatru.

Vamsa / Vatsa
Considered to be an offshoot of the Kurus, the kingdom of Vatsa or Vamsa was roughly situated at the location of modern day Allahabad in Uttar Pradesh. The capital city was known as Kaushambi, which was a prosperous city. A number of rich merchants dwelled here. It was an important gateway for goods and people coming from the North West and south. The ruler of Vatsa was known as Udyana and he was a very powerful ruler. He became a follower of Buddha and adopted Buddhism as the religion for his kingdom.

[MysteRy]

Alexander's Invasion

Regarded as one of the greatest conquerors of all times, Alexander the Great was the King of Macedonia. He had an ambition to conquer the entire world. After conquering Persia, his forces moved towards the Indian sub-continent. It is estimated that Alexander lived from 356 B.C to 323 B.C. Though Alexander's invasion affected only the North Western parts of India, the event marks an important landmark in the history of India. Here is a brief write up on India's invasion by Alexander.

India was not unknown to the Greeks before the invasion by Alexander. Many Indian territories were ruled by the Persians who gained revenue from here in the form of gold. Herodotus, the Greek historian was aware of the riches that India had since he knew about the revenue collected by the Persian Empire. Roughly around 326 B.C Alexander decided to enter India from the northern frontiers. He crossed the Indus River and met King Ambi in Taxila. The king bowed down to the supremacy of Alexander and did not show any resistance.

His greatest battle was with King Porus, who was considered to be a very powerful Indian ruler during that time. The army of Greeks and Porus clashed during a fierce thunderstorm near River Hydaspes. Porus put up strong resistance against the Greeks. It was so fierce and violent that even Alexander was impressed by chivalry and power of Porus. It was during this battle that the faithful horse of Alexander got injured and died. Alexander named a city Buckephalia after the name of the horse Bucephalus. Ultimately Porus was defeated and was captured. But Alexander was impressed with the heroic Porus and decided to let him go and return his kingdom.

Alexander wanted to cross the Ganges River next but his army and deputies advised him otherwise. They told him to leave India since it was not easy to cross the river Ganges. Moreover, they had heard that the Nandas at the other side of Ganges were very powerful and possessed elephants and a gigantic army of soldiers. Thus, it would become difficult to defeat them. The Greeks were also becoming homesick and wanted to return. Halfheartedly, Alexander had to return due to the increasing pressures on him. Thus, the army of Alexander arranged and built ships in order to reach the ocean and take the oceanic route westwards to Greece. Half of the army came on the ships and the rest traveled along the coast.

[MysteRy]

Gautama Buddha

Gautama Buddha is considered to be the epitome of wisdom and knowledge. His life is an inspiration for many people who can't cope up with the increasing pressures of today's fast paced life. The teachings of Buddha talk about realizing your inner self and finally the attainment of Nirvana or total bliss. It's believed that Gautama Buddha was born in 563 B.C. in Lumnini (today in Nepal). Gautam Buddha forms an important character in the history of ancient India.

King Suddhodana, the ruler of Sakhya clan was the father of Buddha. His mother's name was Maya. He was born in a small grove at a place called Lumbini while his mother was on her way to her maternal home for the delivery of the child. It is said that the birth of the Buddha took place among many auspicious signs. The Gods themselves made preparations for the birth of the child.

Flowers bloomed on the tree under which he was born, gentle rains calmed the weather, light music filled the air and calm smells filled the atmosphere. When Buddha was born, his body is said to have borne thirty two auspicious signs or birthmarks, which indicated that his future was going to be very bright. His mother died seven days after giving birth to him and he was brought up by her sister named Mahaprajapati who became his foster mother.

The king made preparations for an elaborate celebration after he was born. The baby was named Siddhartha, which means someone who accomplishes his aims. During the grand celebrations, great sages were called to predict the baby's future. The astrologers predicted that the child had a bright future and would be known throughout the world either as a powerful emperor or a revered monk who would leave his house and other worldly pleasures to become a holy and enlightened person.

The king was worried about the prediction about his son becoming a monk and asked what would make him turn into a monk. The astrologers predicted that four signs would prompt him to leave his worldly possessions and seek salvation. These would be an old crippled man, a diseased man, a corpse and a monk. The king grew worried about this prediction and made sure that his son never went out of the palace and brought him everything he wanted inside the palace premises.

Siddhartha got married at the age of sixteen to a girl named Yashodhara and had a son named Rahula. One day, he somehow managed to bribe a servant to take him out of the palace. As predicted by the astrologers, he saw a crippled old man, a diseased man, a corpse and finally a peaceful monk. The first three disturbed him to a great extent and made him realize that life and beauty were not permanent. However, when he saw the serene and calm on the face of the monk, he made a decision that he would leave all his worldly possessions and pursue a saintly life.

Siddhartha left his family, palace, power and all worldly possessions for pursuing a saintly life. He shaved his head, put on yellow robes and proceeded towards the capital of Magadha known as Rajgriha. He then went towards the hills located near this kingdom where hermits were supposed to live in caves. He requested a hermit named Alamo Kalamo to guide and instruct him. After some time Siddhartha decided to go to another hermit for the pursuit of spirituality. He was determined to practice extreme forms of Yogic austerities to attain inner bliss. He stopped taking food entirely and became very weak by this constant torture.

One day as he was trying to meditate, some dancing girls passed by the place where he was sitting. The song they were singing suddenly made Siddhartha realize that self torture is not going to help and staying away from food does not mean the attainment of true happiness. Thus, he began to eat again and gave up extreme forms of meditation and other practices. He realized that inner peace can be attained only if the body and mind is happy and free of any forms of pain or torture.

He sat in deep meditation under the shadow of a large peepal tree, which later came to be known as Bo-tree or tree of wisdom. He just wanted to attain full illumination and was even ready to give up his life for the sake of enlightenment. He was distracted by Maya (worldly pleasures) many times but he did not get allured and remained adamant in his position. Finally, he emerged victorious and attained full enlightenment. He was so ecstatic that he danced in a state of trance for seven days. When he gained his normal state of consciousness, his face shone with divine glow and his heart was filled with compassion and happiness.

Buddha (Enlightened One) traveled far and wide disseminating the knowledge he had gained. He preached the information and benefits he had gained from the enlightenment. He traveled to Varanasi once and gave a discourse to an audience that comprised of people from all walks of life. His preaching made an impact on everyone present there and a rich man known as Yasa converted to Buddhism. The next in line were Yasa's parents. Thousands followed thereafter and adopted Buddhism as not just their religion but a way of life. Lord Buddha is supposed to have died at the age of 80 due to some error in his diet.

[MysteRy]

Buddhism

The socio-economic conditions during the 6th century BC led to the rise of many heterodox sects in India and Buddhism was one of them. Buddhism forms an important part of Indian history and culture. Buddhism is a religion that is based on Dharma and Philosophy. It was started by Siddhartha Gautama more popularly known as Lord Buddha. The word Buddha essentially means the "Awakened One". The teachings of Buddha have been preserved till date and are essentially in Sanskrit and Pali language. The history of Buddhism dates back to almost 2500 years and was established around the 5th Century B.C. In this section, we give an introduction to Buddhism and cover the important aspects of Buddhism religion.

A Buddha is basically described as a person who "wakes up" from the "sleep of ignorance". This is done through constant efforts such as meditation and abstaining from materialistic pleasures. The person realizes the true meaning of reality without any help from others and lives the rest of his life preaching knowledge for the benefit of others. A person who wants to attain inner bliss and true happiness should stay away from all worldly pleasures and do meditation in order to tame the mind. Nirvana can be attained by following the Four Noble Truths that lead you to the Eight Fold Path of nirvana.

The Four Noble Truths
To attain inner happiness and bliss, one must first realize the Four Noble Truths that explains the true meaning of life. The Four Noble Truths are:

Life means suffering
Origin of suffering is attachment
Cessation of suffering is attainable
Path to the cessation of suffering is Eight Fold Path

A person who realizes the meaning of the Four Noble Truths is closer to the attainment of Nirvana. On realizing the meaning of life, it is easier to accept reality and strive towards attaining a stage that is called Nirvana. The Four Noble Truths assert that suffering exists in the world. The cause of human suffering is attachment and the inability to let go of worldly possessions. However this suffering is temporary and can be terminated. The path that leads to the termination of suffering is the Eight Fold Path.

The Eight Fold Path
The Eight Fold Path basically explains the way to end suffering and attain Nirvana. It is also known as the Middle Way as it lies somewhere between total intemperance and total asceticism. It is about seeking the bliss through a way that makes not just the soul but also the body relaxed and peaceful. The Eight Fold Path is as follows:

Right View
The first aspect of the Eight Fold Path is right view and perception. The ability to see through things clearly will help you in instilling the right thought and right action.

Right Intention
The right view leads to the right intention. This basically refers to preferences and decisions. This is the first step towards performing right action and deeds. Right intention can be explained as the feeling of dedication towards self improvement.

Right Speech
Right speech is known as the first principle of moral and ethical conduct. The right speech is an integral part of the Eight Fold Path. Words should be chosen carefully so as not to cause pain to another soul. Words are crucial as they can either make or break relations. Positive, warm and friendly words are the foundation of right speech.

Right Action
Right action basically refers to the deeds and bodily actions that are performed by an individual. These actions should not be done with wrong intentions or with a hurtful thought. The actions that you do should bring about a positive effect or change in the life of an individual.

Right Livelihood
The right kind of livelihood means that one should earn a living through ethical means, hard work and the right way. One should not indulge in wrong means of earning money like taking lives, selling animals and human trafficking, selling intoxicants or alcohol, etc.

Right Effort
The right effort is what makes all other paths worthwhile. Without effort nothing is achievable in life. Positive effort takes a person towards positive goals in life while distracted efforts take a person towards negative goals. The right kind of effort makes every action and word meaningful and worthwhile and brings you closer to Nirvana.

Right Mindfulness
The process of conceptualization with the help of active observation and controlled thoughts is known as right mindfulness. Perception induces thought and this thought is interpreted into experiences and actions. The ability to see things in a clear perspective with transparent consciousness is what right mindfulness is all about.

Right Concentration
The final principle of the Eight Fold Path is the right concentration. The mind should be concentrated on positive forces so as to achieve positive results. If used properly, concentration of the mind is very powerful. People who practice Buddhism meditate to focus their minds in order clear it from clutter (unwanted thoughts). This concentration helps to see things in a clearer perspective and accept reality the way it is.

[MysteRy]

Chalukya Dynasty

During the 6th and the 8th century, the empire that ruled the Deccan region of India was the Chalukya dynasty. After fading away for some time, they came back to power during the 10th century and ruled till 12th century. The Chalukyas are essentially divided into three broad categories:

Eastern Chalukyas: Ruled from the Vengi region
Western Chalukyas: Ruled from the Badami region
Later Western Chalukyas: Ruled from Kalyani region

The most famous rulers in the empire of the Chalukyas were Pulakesin I and Pulakesin II. The ruler Pulakesin II is said to have defeated emperor Harshavardhana in a battle on the banks of the River Narmada. He also waged a battle against Mahendravarman, the Pallava ruler and conquered him and his kingdom.

The Chalukya dynasty is famous for developing and encouraging art and architecture during its era. The rulers of the Chalukya dynasty were great enthusiasts of art. This is evident from the fact that they built many temples near the region of Badami. A famous example of their architecture is the Virupaksha Temple in Karnataka. The sculptures that adorn the temples are beautifully carved and sculpted and represent scenes from the famous epic Ramayana. Some of the paintings at Ajanta and Ellora cave temples are considered to belong to this period.

Pulakesin II was an admirer of art and always encouraged any art form to flourish in his kingdom. He was also fond of literature and encouraged poetry to flourish in his kingdom. The three famous poets of Kannada literature Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna were from this era. Pulakesin was an able administrator and his subjects were devoted to him. Though he was Hindu by religion Pulakesin was tolerant towards Buddhism as well as Jainism. He built many monasteries in his kingdom that provided shelter to almost 5000 monks. The Chalukya kingdom was truly flourishing till it declined after the 12th century.

[MysteRy]

Chola Dynasty

The rule of the Cholas forms an important part in the history of South India. Chola rule saw remarkable progress in almost all spheres of life such as polity, culture and economy. During the 9th century, the Cholas gained control and overthrew the Pallavas. They primarily ruled in the south of India from the 9th to 13th Century. The Indian Chola Empire conquered not just the south of India but also extended their empire over the sea and ruled parts of the Maldives and Sri Lanka. The founder of the kingdom of Cholas was known by the name of Vijayalaya who conquered the kingdom of Tanjore during mid 8th century. The Chola dynasty is an important landmark in the history of India.

By the end of the 9th century, the Cholas firmly established their empire and exercised control over the south of India. This was during the reign of Rajaraja and his son Rajendra l. They were very ambitious rulers and defeated the Pandya and the Cheras of the south and captured their kingdoms. They had trade relations with west Asia, China and Southeast Asia that aided in enormous development of cities during the 11th century. Architecture and art was at its peak during the reign of the Cholas. The local administration system of the Cholas was amazing and reminds us of the modern day Pahchayati raj.

Culture and Society
There were many developments in the culture and society during the Chola Empire. The main center for cultural and social gatherings was the temple. The temple was an institution in itself. The temple courtyard functioned as a school where students were taught the ancient Vedas and Holy Scriptures. The temples were built in the form of citadels where people could feel safe during an attack or aggression. The society was divided into Brahmins and non-Brahmins. This was the time when Bhakti cult emerged and Lord Shiva was worshipped as a symbol of fertility. Language developed immensely and many languages like Tamil, Kannada and Telugu were developed from Sanskrit.

Architecture and Art
Architecture developed rapidly under the Chola Empire. The temples that were constructed were magnificent to look at. A famous one is the Brihadiswara temple at Tanjore. They formed the cult of Dravidian style of temple architecture. These splendid temples can be still seen at Tanjore and are a living testimony to the intricate style of architecture of the craftsmen of Chola dynasty. Another famous form of art was the bronze figurines that were crafted during this time. The craftsmen used to beautifully decorate the statues with garlands and jewelry while carving the statue itself. Famous examples of bronze statues are the Nataraja and Lord Shiva as Ardhanarishwara.

[MysteRy]

Epic Age in India

The Epic age in India is named so because some of the greatest epics came into being during this time. The epic period is estimated to be roughly from 1000 to 600 B.C. The ancient Indian society is described in a very vivid manner in these three epics. The three famous Indian epics that were created during this time were the Ramayana, Mahabharata and Upanishads. Not only are these three a part of the religious and mythological scriptures, but are also an important part of the historical roots of India. Read on about Indian epic age.

The very ideology of Hinduism is based on the famous Bhagwad Gita, which is a part of the Mahabharata. Thus, the Mahabharata is a foundation of the religion that is thriving today. It is as important to us as the Bible is for Christians. We get a clear picture of the kind of life people led during that point of time. According to the evidences found in the epics, the society was basically rural in nature. People remained prepared for any attacks or external aggressions by keeping weapons with them. The rulers were not chosen but were hereditary. The main economic activity was agriculture and small scale industries like arts, handicrafts, pottery, etc. thrived.

The epics tell us about the way the society was ruled at that time. The King basically filled his treasure vault with the taxes collected from people. He was the highest authority who had the power to punish and pardon. The priests were given the task of performing the religious rituals and sacrifices to make sure that no evil forces hampered the kingdom. With time, the priests began to gain power and also started to influence the king. The king listened to them because the priests were highly learned people who were supposed to be the voice of Gods.

The warriors were trained in using weapons and were supposed to be the protectors of the palaces. Though caste system was there, it was not too rigid. A warrior or an out caste could become a priest if he was adopted by one. The most respected and feared of all were the Dravidians who could not be questioned and were unaffected by the society. The most popular recreational activity was gambling. Horse racing, hunting, gambling, etc. were all introduced during the Epic Age in India.

[MysteRy]

Gupta Empire

The Gupta period marks an important phase in the history of ancient India. The long and efficient rule of the Guptas made a huge impact on the political, social and cultural spheres. Though the Gupta Empire was not as widespread as the Mauryan Empire was in India, yet the Gupta dynasty was successful in creating an empire that is significant in the history of India. The Gupta Period is also popularly known as the Golden Age of India and for the right reasons. The lifestyle and culture of the Gupta dynasty is known through the availability of various ancient coins, scriptures, inscriptions, texts, etc. belonging to that era.

The rulers of the Gupta Empire were efficient administrators who knew how to govern with a firm hand without being despotic. During this age, art and education flourished and many great discoveries were made in these fields. Aryabhatta and Varahamihira, the two great mathematicians contributed much during this period in the field of Vedic Mathematics. Aryabhatta estimated the value of "Pi" to the fourth decimal place. Algebra was developed to a great extent and the concepts of zero and infinity were found. The symbols of numbers 1 to 9 were devised which was a great contribution in mathematics. These symbols came to be known as Hindu Arabic numerals later when the Arabs too adopted them.

The Gupta Age is also known for its advances in astronomy. During the reign of the Gupta rulers, astronomers and philosophers proposed the theory that the earth was not flat but round. The theory of gravity was also propounded during this time. The astronomers made a breakthrough when they found out the different planets and started to make horoscopes based on the planetary positions. The field of medicine also advanced a lot during this time and doctors used to perform operations even during that era. Since so many discoveries and advances were made in arts, medicine, literature and science during Gupta period, it has been called the Golden Age of India.

Main Rulers of Gupta Age

Chandragupta (319 - 335 A.D): Chandragupta was a very powerful Gupta ruler who waged many battles to attain his title. He married Kumaradevi after which the Gupta dynasty came into eminence. He assumed the title of Maharajadiraja, which means king of kings.

Samudragupta (335 - 375 A.D): Samudragupta was the son and successor of Chandragupta. Samudragupta was popularly known as the "Indian Napoleon" as he conquered many territories without making much of an effort. It is said that after Emperor Ashoka, the empire of Samudragupta was the supreme. The coins found in excavation reveal much information about his empire. He performed the Asvamedha Yagna and gained much fame and power. During his reign, many great discoveries and advancements were made in different fields like astronomy, mathematics, medicine, etc.

Chandragupta II (375 - 414 A.D): Also known by the name of Vikramaditya, Chandragupta II was chosen by his father as the successor and the future ruler. Chandragupta II was an able ruler and a great conqueror. His conquest of the peninsula of Saurashtra via the Arabian Sea is considered to be one of his greatest military successes. With the annexation of Saurashtra and Malwa, he opened up sea ports to facilitate trade and commerce. His capital city was Pataliputra.

Kumaragupta I (415 - 455 AD): Kumaragupta ruled for forty years and he was considered to be one of the most powerful rulers of the Gupta Period. He was known by different names such as, Shri Mahendra, Ajita Mahendra, Simha Mahendra, Asvamedha Mahendra, Mahendra Karma, etc. During his reign, the whole of India was united as one single entity. Though it was secular and people had their own thoughts and beliefs, yet they remained united and intact in any adversity. This was proved when the subjects drove out the Hunas from the kingdom after the death of Kumaragupta.

Skandagupta (455 - 467 A.D): Most historic scripts propound that Skandagupta was the ruler after Kumaragupta, though there are some theories that also mention Purugupta, Kumaragupta - II, etc. Skandagupta was a very powerful conqueror and is considered to be at par with God Indra. His empire included the whole of North India from west to east and the peninsular regions of Gujarat.

[MysteRy]

Harshavardhan

King Harshavardhan was one of the most efficient rulers who unified the north of India into one single segment after the decline of the Gupta Empire. He ruled India for a time period of forty years. He was also known as simply Harsha. His father was Prabhakar Vardhan and his brother was the king of Thanesar, Rajyavardhan. Harshavardhan unified the whole of northern India that includes central, western and parts of Deccan plateau. Read the life history of Harsha Vardhana in this short biography.

Prabhakar Vardhan was the initial ruler of the Vardhan dynasty and established his capital at Thanesar located in Kurukshetra. His elder son, Rajyavardhan succeeded him after his death. However, he too was killed in a battle against Devagupta, a ruler who had killed his sister's husband. The throne could not remain empty, so everyone decided to appoint young Harshavardhan as the king. Thus, Harsha became the ruler at the tender age of 16! Even at this young age, he proved himself to be an able ruler and gained fame and fortune at a very young age.

He first stopped his sister from committing the Sati, a ritual where the wife is supposed to die along with her deceased husband in the pyre. He then merged the kingdoms of Kannauj and Thanesar and made Kannauj his capital city. He was an efficient warrior and won many battles against different rulers. He spread his territory rapidly across the Gangetic plain conquering the states of Haryana, Kannauj, Bengal, Gujarat and Bihar. He also conquered some parts of Orissa.

There are many written evidences of the reign of Harsha. These were compiled by the poets Hieun Tsang and Bana. When Harsha came to power, Bana composed it by the name of Harshacharita. The Buddhist pilgrim Hieun Tsang also wrote a full description about the empire of Harshavardhan. He was a very learned man and also wrote three famous plays named Nagananda, Ratnavali and Priyadarshika. Harshavardhan was probably the last empire builder of ancient India. The mighty emperor breathed his last in 647 A.D. and his empire died with him.

[MysteRy]

Indus Valley Civilization

One of the earliest evidences of human civilization in India is found in ancient Indus valley civilization. The Indus valley cities were one of the first cities that came into existence and formed the basis of civilization. The Indus river valley civilization lasted from 3300 - 1700 B.C. It basically flourished from 2600 - 1800 B.C. This civilization is also known by the name of Harappan civilization since the first city to be excavated was Harappa. The two main cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro that were excavated are located in the modern day Pakistan.

The epicenter of the Harappan civilization was in the fertile plains of River Indus. The settlements have been found as far as Baluchistan in Pakistan and Gangetic plain in India. It is estimated that around 5000 years back, a group of nomads came to India from Sumeria, which is the modern day Iran. They passed through the Himalayas where they discovered a rich and fertile land which was irrigated by a number of rivers like Indus, Ravi, Chenab, Sutlej and Beas. This was the fertile plain of the modern day Punjab. As compared to Iran, which is essentially a desert and arid land, this land was blessed with ample water and other natural resources. There was enough wood to burn and enough clay to make bricks.

The real essence and foundation of civilization was formed by the twin cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro. This is because the kind of planning principles that were used over here have been followed without any changes at all other sites. The two cities were located at a distance of around 400 kilometers from each other. The planning of the cities was done brilliantly. They had strong outer walls for defense and were spread over a square mile. The street were planned and constructed in a way that it allowed smooth flow of traffic and smoothly rounded corners made sure that carts could turn easily without hassles.

The cities were divided into 12 major blocks. The basic unit of city planning was individual household. Their main occupation was agriculture. Their agriculture was highly productive and they generated surplus that could support thousands of urban residents who were not necessarily engaged in agriculture. The farmers made full use of the fertile lands that flourished in alluvial soil. Their irrigation method was highly advanced though there are no evidences to support the same. They could have been destroyed in the devastating floods that kept repeating every time.

Extensive excavation projects in this site have helped archaeologists and historians to understand the arts and crafts of this era. A variety of sculptures, seals, jewelry in gold, pottery and statues in bronze, terracotta and steatite have been found in these excavations. One of the most famous of these artifacts is the bronze statue of the slender limbed "Dancing Girl". This was found in the site of Mohenjo-daro. Many crafts like ceramics, shell carvings, make up items, special combs, etc. were also found, thus giving crucial idea about the lifestyle of these people.

The people of Indus valley civilization believed in Gods as well and certain seals show a figure sitting in a Yoga - like posture surrounded by animals. This figure was called Pashupati. Other seals show the symbol of Swastika embellished on them. They also worshipped a female entity, which was named as Mother Goddess. They carried on trade and transportation via a highly developed waterway. A canal that was built by them was found during excavations.

The civilization flourished for many years before finally declining rapidly. One of the main causes that contributed to the decline of Indus valley civilization is changing patterns of climate. Apparently the climate of Indus valley changed over the years making it colder and drier. As a result, the Ghaggar Hakra river system shrunk and its major portions dried up. It is also said that a major tectonic shift may have diverted the natural resources towards the Gangetic Plain. However, the real and definite cause for the decline of the civilization is not known and it is speculated to be a result of various factors including the above two.

[MysteRy]

Magadha Empire

Magadha Empire lasted from 684 B.C - 320 B.C in India. The two great epics Ramayana and Mahabharata mention the Magadha Empire. It is said that the Shishunaga dynasty founded the Magadha Empire. Some of the greatest empires and religions of India originated here. The Gupta Empire and Mauryan Empire started here. The great religions, Buddhism and Jainism were founded in Magadha Empire. Read on to know about the history of Magadh Empire.

Magadha Empire gained much power and importance during the rule of King Bimbisara and his son and successor Ajatshatru. Bimbisara is said to have been murdered by his son Ajatshatru. The Magadha Empire in India extended in the modern day Bihar and Patna and some parts of Bengal. Magadha Empire was a part of the 16 Mahajanapadas. The empire extended up to River Ganges and the kingdoms of Kosala and Kashi were annexed. The places that came under the Magadha Empire were mostly republican in nature and the administration was divided into judicial, executive and military functions.

The Magadha Empire fought gruesome battles with most of its neighbors. They had advanced forms of weaponry andthe opposed forces did not stand a chance against them. Ajatshatru even built a huge fort at his capital Pataliputra. This was the place that Buddha prophesized would become a popular place of trade and commerce. With an unmatched military force, the Magadha Empire naturally had an upper hand over conquering neighborhood places and spreading the territory. This is what made it a major part of the 16 Mahajanapadas.

However, after the death of King Udayan, the Magadha Empire started to decline very rapidly. Internal disturbances and corruption within the kingdom led to its decline. The Magadha Empire was finally taken over by the powerful Nanda dynasty who then ruled here for a good amount of time before being taken over by the Mauryas.