~ History of India ~

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Women in Ancient India

Many historians claim that women enjoyed an equal status with men in ancient India. It is said that women were educated, had a say in family matters, took important decisions of life and were free to choose their own husbands. The ancient system of "Swayamvara" is mentioned in holy scripts and also in many epics. A woman in ancient India was respected and was given due importance in the society. Child marriage was unheard of and many women were also famous sages like Gargi, Maitreyi, etc.

With time, women started to lose their importance and their status began to wane. The freedom given to women was curtailed slowly and she was not allowed to voice her opinions in political matters in a society. Polygamy began to increase and child marriage came into vogue. Daughters were considered to be a burden and they were reduced to doing the chores of household. Sati, an ancient practice in which a widow had to lie beside her husband's pyre, came into vogue. Women were tortured and humiliated and their position and condition degraded.

In ancient India, remarriage of widows was not encouraged. They were seen as a disgrace to the family and had to give up all the comforts of life. They wore plain clothes, tonsured their heads, had a separate place to stay and ate bland food. Reformers and emperors like Asoka, fought for the rights and welfare of women. Due to the efforts of many such reformers and philosophers, the condition of women improved and they were able to walk on the streets again with their heads held high.

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Maurya Empire

One of the greatest empires in the history of India was the Maurya Empire. It approximately lasted from 322 - 185 B.C. Most of India was united as a single entity by the great emperor Chandragupta Maurya. His son Bindusara extended the kingdom of Mauryas over almost the entire sub-continent. The Mauryan Empire had the most powerful military force in ancient India. The greatest emperor of the Maurya dynasty was Ashoka. An able administrator and a skillful warrior, Ashoka converted to Buddhism after the gruesome Battle of Kalinga.

The Maurya Empire had smooth administration and efficient rulers. The government was hierarchical and centralized with a lot of staff to make sure that work was carried on smoothly and efficiently. Taxes were collected regularly, trade and commerce was carried on smoothly, citizens were taken care of and the army was always ready for any sort of external aggression or threat. Every province had its own officials who managed administration at grassroots level. The economy was agrarian and the main economic activity of people was agriculture. The capital city of Magadha was beautifully decorated and had all facilities that any modern city would have.

In the Mauryan dynasty, art and literature flourished and the rulers built many famous temples and monuments. Ashoka preached his philosophies in the form of pillars and rock edicts all over northern India. The great advisor Chanakya, who is said to be the driving force behind the fame and success of Emperor Chandragupta, also wrote many great books that have been compiled as literary masterpieces. The Maurya dynasty also saw the rise and fall of many different empires in the south of India. There was constant struggle for power and control of the Deccan region and central India among various small rulers.

The Maurya Empire started to disintegrate towards late 2nd century. The north of India broke into a series of chaos and this situation attracted many invaders who crossed the border to establish their kingdoms. The rulers were busy fighting among themselves and exhausting resources when they should have checked external aggression. After the death of Ashoka, the disintegration had started and worsened by 3rd century.

Asoka the Great
One of the greatest emperors of all times, Emperor Asoka was a Mauryan ruler whose empire spread across the Indian sub continent and the present day Pakistan and Afghanistan thus covering a vast area. He is known as Asoka the Great since he was one of the most able rulers who ruled India.

Asoka Dhamma
After converting to Buddhism, one of the greatest emperors of India, Ashoka disseminated the teachings and knowledge of the Buddhist scriptures. Ashoka always had belief in morals and principles and had high ideals in life. These came to be known as Dhamma of Emperor Ashoka.

Asoka Pillars
Asoka's pillars are basically a series of pillars that are spread all over the northern part of the Indian sub continent. These pillars were set up during the time Emperor Ashoka reigned in India. Most of the pillars, though damaged to some extent still stand upright and are protected by the concerned authorities.

Chanakya
One of the greatest figures of wisdom and knowledge in the Indian history is Chanakya. He is estimated to have lived from 350 - 283 B.C. Chanakya is touted as the "Pioneer Economist of India". Chanakya was the adviser and Prime Minister of Emperor Chandragupta.

Chandragupta Maurya
Known as the founder of Mauryan Empire, King Chandragupta Maurya is considered to be one of the most able rulers who ruled and unified India. Chandragupta Maurya ruled from 320 - 298 B.C approximately. He is considered to be one of the most authentic and able rulers of India.

Asoka Rock Edicts
Asoka was one of the greatest emperors of India. His high ideals and philosophies are inscribed in the form of rock edicts all over northern India. The Ashokan rock edicts are basically a collection of 33 inscriptions that are carved on the Pillars of Ashoka along with big boulders, caves, etc.

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Asoka the Great

One of the greatest emperors of all times, Emperor Asoka was a Mauryan ruler whose empire spread across the Indian subcontinent, stretching from the present day Pakistan and Afghanistan to Bangladesh and the Indian state of Assam to Kerala and Andhra in south India, thus covering a vast area. He is known as Asoka the Great since he was one of the most able rulers who ruled India. Under his rule, the entire India was united as one single entity with smooth administration. His life is an inspiration to many as he excelled in everything he did. The name Ashoka means "without any sorrow" in Sanskrit. Read on this biography about the life history of famous Buddhist emperor, Ashoka.

Born in 304 BC, the great king Ashoka was the grandson of the famous ruler Chandragupta Maurya and son of Mauryan emperor Bindusara and his queen, Dharma. As a young lad, Ashoka excelled in whatever he was taught. Be it the art of warfare or reading the Holy Scriptures, Asoka excelled in everything he did. Ashoka had many half brothers and was loved by one and all. Thus, after his father died, his elder brother Suman took over the reign of the kingdom. But most of his father's ministers found Ashoka to be more efficient and helped him attain power. After a three year war, Ashoka was accepted the throne and was crowned as the king of Magadha in 273 BC. After being crowned as the king, he proved himself by smoothly administrating his territory and performing all his duties as an able and courageous king.

After a period of eight years of serving as the king, Ashoka planned to seize the territory of Kalinga, the present day Orissa. He led a huge army and fought a gruesome battle with the army of Kalinga. The battle of Kalinga made him pledge to never wage a war again. The battle took place on the Dhauli hills that are located on the banks of River Daya. Though Ashoka emerged victorious at the end, the sight of the battlefield made his heart break with shame, guilt, and disgust. It is said that the battle was so furious that the waters of River Daya turned red with the blood of the slain soldiers and civilians.

The sight of numerous corpses lying strewn across the battlefield made his heart wrench. He felt sick inside. The battle ground looked like a graveyard with bodies of not just soldiers but men, women, and children also. He saw young children crying over the bodies of their dead parents, women crying over the bodies of their dead husbands, mothers crying over the loss of their kids. This turned him heartbroken and thus, made a pledge to never ever fight a battle again. To seek solace, he converted to Buddhism. He was so inspired by the teachings of the Buddhist monks and Buddhist philosophies that he used his status to impart this knowledge all over the world. He is credited to be the first Emperor to make a serious attempt at developing Buddhist policies.

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Asoka Dhamma

After converting to Buddhism, one of the greatest emperors of India, Ashoka disseminated the teachings and knowledge of the Buddhist scriptures. Ashoka always had belief in morals and principles and had high ideals in life. These came to be known as Dhamma of Emperor Ashoka. The word Dhamma is the Prakrit version of the Sanskrit word Dharma. Given here is further information about king Asoka's Dharma.

Ashoka's Dhamma is a philosophical entity that emphasizes on the high ideals in order to lead a successful life. He wanted everyone to live peacefully and co-exist in a harmonious environment. Some of his ideals were to shun war and spread peace, stop animal sacrifices, respect elders, masters treating slaves like humans, promoting vegetarianism, etc. These ideals if followed correctly lead one to a higher level of living. Ashoka wanted to spread peace and prosperity in his kingdom.

The true essence of Ashoka's Dhamma is present in the form of the various rock edicts. The principles of Ashoka's Dhamma are inscribed on those rock edicts in Brahmi language. These edicts are a code for how to lead life in a way that you become an inspiration for others. Ashoka believed that a king should treat his subjects the same way a father treats his children.

An able king should be courageous, responsible for his subjects, take up initiative in tasks like constructing roads, hospitals, rest houses, etc. Ashoka appointed Dhamma Mahamattas who were basically officers looking after the spread of these principles across the empire of Ashoka. Ashoka propagated the principles of Dhamma not just in India but countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and other South East Asian countries as well.

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Asoka Pillars

Asoka's pillars are basically a series of pillars that are spread all over the northern part of the Indian sub continent. These pillars were set up during the time Emperor Ashoka reigned in India. Most of the pillars, though damaged to some extent still stand upright and are protected by the concerned authorities. Out of all the pillars, the most famous is the Ashokan pillar located at Sarnath. Most of King Asoka's pillars have inscriptions of Ashoka's Dhamma or philosophies. Read further about the famous Ashoka Pillar.

The pillar at Sarnath is believed to mark the site where Lord Buddha preached his first sermon. It is said to be place where Buddha taught Dharma to five monks. The pillar at Sarnath has an edict inscribed on it that reveals information about Ashoka's stand against divisions of any sort in the society. When translated, it says "No one shall cause division in the order of monks". The pillar at Sarnath is made of sandstone and is maintained in proper shape even today.

The appearance of the pillar is quite imposing. At the base of the pillar is an inverted lotus flower which forms a platform for the pillar. At the top of the pillar are four lions sitting back to back facing the four prime directions. Other illustrations on the pillar include the Dharma Chakra (Wheel) with 24 spokes which can be seen on the Indian national flag as well. All illustrations have their own meaning and significance. There are four animals illustrated on the pillar. They stand for the following:

The illustration of an Elephant signifies Lord Buddha's conception. When Buddha was conceived, his mother dreamt that a white elephant had entered the womb.

A Bull illustrated on the pillar signifies the zodiac sign of Taurus as it is said that Buddha was born during the month of April - May and also attained enlightenment during this time. The Bull also stands as a symbol of Lord Shiva.

The Horse stands for the horse named Kanthaka that Buddha rode when he departed from his palace to practice asceticism and attain enlightenment.

The Lion that is illustrated signifies the attainment of enlightenment.

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Chanakya

One of the greatest figures of wisdom and knowledge in the Indian history is Chanakya. He is estimated to have lived from 350 - 283 B.C. Chanakya is touted as the "Pioneer Economist of India". Chanakya was the adviser and Prime Minister of Emperor Chandragupta. Chanakya was a professor at the University of Takshila (located in present day Pakistan) and was an expert in commerce, warfare, economics, etc. His famous works include Chanakya Neeti, Arthashastra and Neetishastra. Read this biography of Kautilya that covers his interesting life history.

Chanakya is also known by the name of Kautilya and Vishnugupta as is mentioned in his text. His famous work called Arthashastra is a classic example of statecraft and politics and is read in Europe even today. It basically consists of the principles of politics and how the state works. An able ruler has to be a ruthless leader to make sure that the state works smoothly and efficiently. The legends associated with Chanakya are very interesting and provide a testimony of his greatness.

Legends:

When Chanakya was born he had a full set of teeth, which is a sign that he would become a king or an emperor. But since he was born in a Brahmin family, it was considered inappropriate. Thus, his teeth were broken and it was predicted that he would make another person a king and rule through him.

Even as a child, Chanakya had the qualities of a born leader. His level of knowledge was beyond children of his age.

Chanakya was thrown out of the court of King Nanda as he was a blunt man and spoke his mind clearly. Chanakya swore he would take revenge.

Chanakya comes across Chandragupta as a young child. Even at that age, he was a born leader and showed the qualities of an able Emperor. He was the guiding force behind Chandragupta and the vital person who made him an able Emperor.

Chanakya adds poison in little amounts daily in Chandragupta's food in order to make him immune to poison, lest some enemy tries to poison him.

However Chandragupta was unaware about this and once gave a little food to his wife who was in the ninth month of pregnancy. She didn't survive but Chanakya cut open her belly and took out the baby.

This baby grew up to become an able emperor named Bindusara. He had a minister named Subandhu who did not like Chanakya. He told Bindusara that Chanakya had killed his mother.

Without assessing facts, Bindusara confronted Chanakya. On knowing the whole story, he felt ashamed at his hasty actions and begged for forgiveness. He asked Subandhu to go and apologize and make Chanakya come back.

Subandhu was very cunning and on the pretext of going to apologize to Chanakya, he killed him. Thus, ended the life of a great person like Chanakya just because of political rivalry.

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Chandragupta Maurya

Known as the founder of Mauryan Empire, King Chandragupta Maurya is considered to be one of the most able rulers who ruled and unified India. Chandragupta Maurya ruled from 320 - 298 B.C approximately. He is considered to be one of the most authentic and able rulers of India. The life history of Chandragupta Maurya is very intriguing and inspiring. Check out this short biography of Chandragupta Maurya.

Chandragupta Maurya was successful in unifying India as a single unit and is thus regarded as a unifier. Before Chandragupta became a powerful emperor, north western India was mainly ruled by small regional kingdoms that were scattered here and there. Chandragupta's empire extended from Kashmir in the north to Deccan plateau in the south and Assam in the east to Afghanistan in the west. Such was the extent of his empire that not just India, but even neighboring lands of Afghanistan, Balochistan, Nepal came under his kingdom.

Not much is known about the youth of Chandragupta Maurya. Some say that he belonged to the Magadha clan and was born of an illegitimate affair between a Nanda prince and a maid. As a young child he had the qualities of a successful ruler. He was first spotted by Chanakya who recognized the true talent of the young lad. Chanakya trained him and taught him the principles of warfare and other fine arts.

Chandragupta Maurya's biggest achievements were defeating Alexander's army and taking over the Nanda Empire at a young age of just 20 years. These are regarded as milestones in India's history and are studied with great interest by historians even today. After uniting India during his efficient reign, Chandragupta gave up the throne and adopted the life of an ascetic. According to Jainism, Chandragupta became an ascetic under the saint Bhadrabahu Swami. He migrated towards the south approximately to the present day Karnataka and left for heavenly abode in a small cave. A temple has been built in that site in the honor of the emperor.

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Asoka Edicts

Asoka was one of the greatest emperors of India. His high ideals and philosophies are inscribed in the form of rock edicts all over northern India. The Ashokan rock edicts are basically a collection of 33 inscriptions that are carved on the Pillars of Ashoka along with big boulders, caves, etc. These rock edicts have not been modified in any way and are preserved the way they were carved during that time. Read on about Ashoka's rock edict.

The rock edicts of Ashoka are spread all through the northern part of India as well as modern day Pakistan. These rock edicts are supposed to be one of the primary concrete evidences of the spread of Buddhism. The inscriptions on these edicts basically provide information about the spread of Buddhism in India and other places. According to the information provided on the edicts, Buddhism spread as far as Mediterranean. Many Buddhist monuments and temples were constructed during this time in order to promote this peaceful religion and make the world aware of Buddha's ideals and philosophies.

The rock edicts declare Emperor Ashoka's belief in the concept of Dharma or Righteousness. The inscriptions focus on not just the religious aspects and practices but more on the social and moral concepts. The rock edicts very clearly mention the efforts of Emperor Ashoka to spread Buddhism throughout the kingdom. However, the rock edicts do not mention the Four Noble Truths or the Eight Fold Path to Nirvana. This could be because Ashoka wanted to remain simple in his approach to Buddhism and connect with the common man.

The rock edicts describe Ashoka as the "Beloved of Gods". This was discovered in an inscription that was discovered in the year 1915 on a rock edict. The language used in the rock edicts and inscriptions of Ashoka was Pali. As the edicts and inscriptions were scattered over different parts of the empire, as many as four scripts were used in different edicts and inscriptions of Ashoka. These scripts were Kharoshti, Greek, Aramic and Brahmi.

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Vedic Period

The Vedic Period is one of major milestones in the history of India. It is estimated that the Vedic Period in India lasted from 1500 - 600 B.C. This period brought about a multitude of changes in the lifestyle of people. The Vedic age is broadly classified into two categories: Early Vedic Age and Later Vedic age. There was development in agricultural practices, worshipping patterns, philosophical outlooks, etc. A number of dynasties and new religions came into being during this period that left a huge impact on people. Read on the history of the Vedic Age.

The migration of the Aryans to the Indian sub continent is what triggered off the Vedic Age. As the name suggests, this period got its name from the four major Vedas or the sacred scriptures that were created during that time. The four sacred Vedas are Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. These scriptures provide essential knowledge of the lifestyle during the Vedic Age. The Vedas are the foundation of the Hindu religion. Apart from the Vedas, we have two great epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata written during this age. These two epics tell a lot about the culture, society, religious beliefs, etc. of people during that time.

Vedic Religion
The Vedic period religions laid the foundation of the religious practices that are continued till date in modern India. These religions arose from the sacred scriptures that were composed during the Vedic period. These scriptures founded the very base of Hinduism in India. The scriptures that talk of the various religious practices are basically the four Vedas namely Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.

Vedic Culture
The Vedic period has been broadly classified into two categories: the Early and Later Vedic Periods. This has been done according to the way the transition in the style of culture and society took place. The Vedic period society developed rapidly as time passed by. In Vedic age, culture and society developed from the crude form to the refined form as more and more people came to settle and started to contribute their own ideas to reform the society.

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Vedic Religion

The Vedic period religions laid the foundation of the religious practices that are continued till date in modern India. These religions arose from the sacred scriptures that were composed during the Vedic period. These scriptures founded the very base of Hinduism in India. The scriptures that talk of the various religious practices are basically the four Vedas namely Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda. The Upanishads are also considered to be a part of the Vedas and contain valuable information regarding the rituals and religions of Vedic Age.

The principles of religions in Vedic Era were basically laid down by the priests, who were the highest class of people in the society. They were the ones who performed the rituals, chanted hymns and read out holy texts in temples and functions. The texts recorded in the Vedas were supposed to have divine power and were to be chanted perfectly with the right tone, pronunciation and emphasis. This was believed to make the hymns effective to the hilt and gain the maximum power out of it.

Religion in Early Vedic Period
Religion in early Vedic period revolved around crude forms of worshipping which basically includes nature worship. This means that people in the early Vedic period worshipped different forms of nature as god like sun, earth, moon, wind, rain, and other natural phenomena. Since there were no scientific explanations for natural phenomena like rain, thunder, wind, etc. people feared them and thus worshipped them. Chanting of prayers and hymns were a common practice to invoke the Gods and it was normal to sacrifice animals in the name of religion.

Religion in Later Vedic Period
The later Vedic age saw the increase in powers of the priests and they formed the highest class in the society. Religious practices were refined and worship of Gods in the form of idols gained importance. Animal sacrifice also increased during this period. With rituals and hymns taking center stage, the evolution of Hindu religion took place. Nature worship gave rise to new beliefs and new Gods. The duty of imparting the religious know how to people was the duty of the priests.

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Vedic Culture

The Vedic period has been broadly classified into two categories: the Early and Later Vedic Periods. This has been done according to the way the transition in the style of culture and society took place. The Vedic period society developed rapidly as time passed by. In Vedic age, culture and society developed from the crude form to the refined form as more and more people came to settle and started to contribute their own ideas to reform the society. With the development in society & culture during Vedic era, historians had to divide the era according to the developments.

Society and Culture in Early Vedic Period
Society in the early Vedic period was basically semi nomadic in nature as people were still learning to settle permanently. They did settle on small patches of land, but moved as soon as the resources over there were depleting. They started to domesticate wild animals and train them as farm animals. As the population in these semi-nomadic groups increased, they settled permanently as moving with a large group was next to impossible. They then started to do farming on a large scale and resorted to full time farming. Their culture was that of a typical tribe. They had a tribal chief who was the governing head of the tribe. He was helped by a group of wise and experienced men in performing his duties.

Society and Culture in Later Vedic Period
The society in the later Vedic period increased in size as people began to live in large settlements that had all facilities for the people. The size of the agricultural fields grew in size. During this time, kingship evolved into the hereditary form in which the son of a ruling chief gets the throne after the chief. The priestly class developed and occupied the highest position in the society. Another significant development during the later Vedic age was that of the caste division of the society. The society was divided into four castes namely Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The Brahmanas were the priestly class who occupied the highest position in the society. The Kshatriyas were the warriors; the Vaishyas were the service class like businessmen and peasants. The Shudras were the lowest class of people who did jobs like removing garbage, cleaning up, etc.

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Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate basically refers to the Muslim rulers who ruled India through Delhi. This basically came into existence after Mohammed Ghori captured Delhi after defeating Prithviraj. After Prithviraj was captured, the Delhi Sultanate went into the hands of one of Ghori's generals known as Qutub-ud-din Aibak. During the end of the 12th century, he established a series of rulers and this dynasty was called as the slave dynasty since the rulers had been military slaves. Read more about the history of the Delhi sultanate in India.

The extent of Delhi sultanate was till Bengal in the east and Deccan in the south. Even such a big sultanate faced constant threats from the North West and was also under pressure from internal politics within independent nobles. There was instability and unrest in the kingdom as there five dynasties that rose and fell which includes Slave dynasty, Khilji dynasty, Tughlaq dynasty, Sayyid dynasty and Lodhi dynasty. It was under the Khilji dynasty that most of South India was conquered. The territory was never fixed and depended upon the ability of the ruler as to how much was he able to conquer and control.

The effectiveness of a ruler during this time depended entirely upon his ability to conquer the places that fell near military highways and trade routes, collect land tax for revenue of the state and have firm authority over military and state governors. Agriculture and its related activities were the main source of livelihood in the kingdom but due to continued political unrest and instability, the peasants suffered greatly. During this time, Persian language developed to a great extent at the places where power was concentrated.

Slave Dynasty
The Indian slave dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290. The slave dynasty was the first Muslim dynasty to rule India. It is said that Muhammad Ghori did not have a natural heir to the throne and he the habit of treating his slaves like his own children. Thus after the death of Ghori, one of the most able slaves by the name of Qutub-ud-din Aibak descended the throne. The history of the slave dynasty begins with the rule of Qutub-ud-din Aibak.

First Battle of Panipat
The first battle of Panipat was actually the event that marked the end of the Lodhi dynasty and the beginning of the Mughal dynasty in India. The 1st battle of Panipat was fought between the last ruler of Lodhi dynasty, Ibrahim Lodhi and the ruler of Kabul, Babur.

Indo Islamic Culture
With the coming of the Mughals in India and the Turkish rule, there were many developments and changes in the Indian culture. Not just culture, there were major developments in architecture and art. The indo Islamic culture was a blend of Hinduism and Islam. It was neither strict Hindu nor strict Islam.

Khilji Dynasty
After the decline of the Slave dynasty, the Sultanate became even more fragile and instable due to the numerous revolts and internal aggression. The Khilji dynasty started with the crowning of Jalaluddin Khilji by the nobles. This was around the year 1290 A.D. But within a few years, he was killed by his nephew Alauddin Khilji under a conspiracy hatched by the latter.

Lodi Dynasty
The Lodi dynasty in India arose around 1451 after the Sayyid dynasty. The Lodhi Empire was established by the Ghizlai tribe of the Afghans. They formed the last phase of the Delhi Sultanate. There were three main rulers in the history of Lodi dynasty.

Sayyid Dynasty
After the Tughlaq dynasty disintegrated, the Sayyid dynasty rose to power. They were essentially the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate of India and reigned from 1414 to 1451. The history of the Sayyid dynasty is not clearly known but they claimed to be the descendants of Prophet Mohammed.

Tughlaq Dynasty
The Tughlaqs were basically of Turkish origin and the family was essentially Muslim. Around the year 1321, Ghazi Tughlaq ascended the throne and was given the title Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq. The Tughlaq dynasty was able to withhold its rule due to their strong allies like the Turks, Afghans and the Muslim warriors of south Asia.

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Slave Dynasty

The Indian slave dynasty lasted from 1206 to 1290. The slave dynasty was the first Muslim dynasty to rule India. It is said that Muhammad Ghori did not have a natural heir to the throne and he the habit of treating his slaves like his own children. Thus after the death of Ghori, one of the most able slaves by the name of Qutub-ud-din Aibak descended the throne. The history of the slave dynasty begins with the rule of Qutub-ud-din Aibak. He was succeeded by two more able rulers after which the slave dynasty vanished in no time due to lack of able rulers.

Qutub-ud-din Aibak
The first ruler of the slave dynasty was Qutub-ud-din Aibak who ruled from 1206 to 1210. He established his capital at two places, first at Lahore and then shifted it to Delhi. It was during his reign that the construction of the famous Qutub Minar was started. He was an able ruler and was very kind and generous with his people. Due to his good nature, he earned the title of "Lakh Baksh", which means giver of thousands. He could rule for a very short time as he died in an accident in 1210. He was succeeded by his son Aram Shah but due to his incompetence, he was defeated in just one year by Iltumish.

Iltumish
After Aram Shah, the next able ruler was Iltumish. He ruled from 1211 to 1236. Under his strong governance, the slave dynasty was able to find a strong footing and establish itself as an important kingdom. The army was organized efficiently under Iltumish and he also introduced a coin currency known as Tanka. It was in his reign that the construction of Qutub Minar was completed. After ruling successfully for a period of 25 years, he died, but nominated his daughter Raziya Sultan as the heir to the throne. She was an able ruler, but since she was a woman, she faced stern opposition from nobles who got her murdered.

Ghiyasuddin Balban
The last effective emperor of the slave dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Balban. He ruled from 1266 to 1286. During his reign, the administration was strengthened and he paid much attention to governance in his empire. The army was trained effectively to use weapons and the production of arms and other war weaponry was at its peak. This is what helped them fight against attacks by the Mongols. He died in 1286 and after him the slave dynasty collapsed.

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First Battle of Panipat

The first battle of Panipat was actually the event that marked the end of the Lodhi dynasty and the beginning of the Mughal dynasty in India. The 1st battle of Panipat was fought between the last ruler of Lodhi dynasty, Ibrahim Lodhi and the ruler of Kabul, Babur. By 1525, Babur had captured the whole of Punjab and then he proceeded towards Delhi. The history of the first battle of Panipat was an important milestone that was to change the very face of history in India. This historical event is discussed in detail below.

After capturing Punjab, Babur proceeded towards Delhi to meet Ibrahim Lodhi. The Sultan got the message that Babur was proceeding towards Delhi with a huge army and strong artillery. But Ibrahim Lodhi's army was much bigger and he had war elephants. But Babur defeated the army with organization and skilled maneuvering. This historic battle of Panipat took place on April 21st (1526) at the place called Panipat which is located in modern day Haryana. This place has been the site many important battles in the history of India.

Though Ibrahim Lodhi had elephants and huge army, he did not know how to control them. Babur had guns and he used them to scare the elephants. As a result the elephants went out of control and trampled Lodhi's own army. He lost a lot of soldiers like that. Ibrahim Lodhi was finally abandoned by his generals and advisors and was left to die on the battlefield. This battle was the turning point in the history of Delhi as it marked the beginning of one of the most important empires in India, the Mughal dynasty.

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Indo Islamic Culture

With the coming of the Mughals in India and the Turkish rule, there were many developments and changes in the Indian culture. Not just culture, there were major developments in architecture and art. The indo Islamic culture was a blend of Hinduism and Islam. It was neither strict Hindu nor strict Islam. The history of Indo Islamic culture is very interesting and an important milestone in the historical legacy of India. The Indo Islamic architecture can be broadly classified into two main categories:

Delhi or the Imperial Style

Mughal Architecture

The former was developed by the Sultans of Delhi while the latter was inspired from Islamic Architecture of Central Asia and the Hindu Architecture of India. The indo Islamic style was unique and its typical characteristics were spaciousness and width. The landscape was dominated by mosques and the dome became an inseparable part of any architectural monument. The dome was inspired by Hindu temples that had a circular top called "Kalash".

The monuments were decorated with calligraphy and intricate designs. A very important symbol of the indo-Islamic architecture was the magnificent tomb or burial chambers for the emperors. It was developed and refined during the Mughal era. The tombs were surrounded by beautiful gardens and the grave used to be placed below the memorial plaque. One of the most famous examples of a tomb is the Taj Mahal.

Though this form of architecture started before the end of the Turkish rule, it was under Emperor Akbar that Mughal architecture got its due importance and fame. Akbar concentrated on using red sandstone for most of the monuments. He blended some unique foreign styles with the Mughal architecture like combining, high minarets, gardens, pillars, etc. with the main monument. The monuments were lavishly decorated with precious metals like gold, silver and precious stones like diamonds, emeralds, rubies, etc. some other famous examples of the indo Islamic architecture are Qutub Minar, Alai Darwaza, Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque, Tughlaqabad Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Agra Fort, Taj Mahal, Red Fort of Delhi etc.